Sällskapet för Parapsykologisk Forskning

och John Björkhems Minnesfond

  • Om parapsykologi
    • Forskning
    • Litteratur
    • Aktuell Parapsykologi
    • Länkar
  • Notiser
  • Nyhetsbrev
    • Senaste nyhetsbrevet
    • Nyhetsbrev
  • Kalendarium
  • Blogg
  • Om Oss
    • Integritetspolicy
    • Styrelsen för SPF
    • SPF Årsberättelse
    • Stiftelsen John Björkhems Minnesfond
      • Styrelsen för JBM
      • JBM Årsberättelse
  • Kontakt
  • Podd
    • Paranormala perspektiv – YouTube
    • Paranormala perspektiv – Facebook
    • Paranormala Perspektiv – Instagram
  • Bli medlem
Du är här: Hem / Notiser / Notis 286 – Mysterious Minds

Notis 286 – Mysterious Minds

2012-10-02 av spf

Notis 286, 02-10-2012. En omfattade och utförlig recension av boken Mysterious Minds, Irreducible to Brains? med Krippner och Friedman som redaktörer, om ”neurobiologin hos psychics, medier och andra extraordinära personer”. Recensionen finns i J of Scientific Explorations #1/12. /JT+GB

Denna utomordentligt 1omfattande bokrecension av bok av bl a vår hedersmedlem, Stanley Krippner. Även vår härvarande parapsykolog, den alltid aktivt skrivande kollegan (hur hinner han med det?), Adrian Parker, medverkar!

 

Mysterious Minds, Irreducible to Brains?

Mysterious Minds: The Neurobiology of Psychics, Mediums, and

Other Extraordinary People

edited by Stanley Krippner and Harris L. Friedman. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2009. 219 pp. $44.95 (hardcover). ISBN 9780313358661.

 

This book presents a wide range of anomalous experiences and events and their

possible neural correlates within a framework that is not necessarily materialist-reductionist based. Here psi-related experiences refer to the subjective; whereas psi-related events occur in a scientific setting with objective measures. These

anomalies are presented using a broad spectrum of viewpoints. One end of the

continuum is expressed in Allan Combs’ Foreword, stating that the standards

that psi research is expected to meet are far stricter than most mainstream science

could meet, possibly due to a mindset similar to scientism. The other extreme is

expressed in James Alcock’s chapter (Chapter 2) titled “The Parapsychologist’s

Lament” which portrays in detail the body of difficulties in the field, but ends

with conclusions—e.g., failure to replicate, and that neural correlates of psi

cannot be possible because these things have not been proven to exist.

 

Chapter 1 by William Roll and Bryan J. Williams addresses the intersection

of quantum theory, neurobiology, and parapsychology. This commences with

a review of the electrophysiology of psi, including psi-related contingent

negative variation and slow cortical potentials, EEG/fMRI correlation studies

of remote stimulation, neural correlates of overt psi performance, fMRI/EEG

of presentiment, and temporal lobe sensitivity in ESP experiences. Quantum

entanglement is used to explain how non-locality may be involved in psi. From

this, theories of mechanism are suggested. Retrocognitive and precognitive

information cross into conscious awareness and psychokinesis is suggested

to involve entropy and negentropy. Next, poltergeists are described as a form

of macro PK (recurrent spontaneous psychokinesis) which takes place when

a witness is not directly observing the object moving. This is justified by the

quantum Zeno effect. Micro PK, or changes in RNG to a non-random output, is

presented here as being correlated with alpha brain activity. Quantum physics

may very well be the key to explaining how psi occurs, but, at this point,

mapping psi onto quantum entanglement and other quantum effects is merely

an analogy and not a direct mechanism of action of psi.

 

Chapter 2 contains Alcock’s negative appraisal of the field, as previously

mentioned. He claims that there is a lack of replicability in psi studies.

Ironically, the very next chapter by Caroline Watt and Harvey Irwin provides

ample evidence that this is not the case, with an emphasis on “independent

replications” in their review. Next, Alcock claims that “ad hoc constructs” like

an experimenter effect are unfalsifiable. To me, this claim is reminiscent of

Freudian ego-defense mechanisms. It may be that Alcock’s own bias against

evidence of psi is unfalsifiable to himself. Following this, Alcock makes the

bold claim that without a theory of the mechanism of action involved in psi

and robust evidence that psi exists, we cannot link deviations in objective

measures to specific hypotheses. It is not clear that this is the case. Objective

observations and correlations, even without a specific mechanism of action,

are valid. Hypothesis building may indeed lead to further research which may

elucidate the mechanisms of action involved in psi. Alcock ends his chapter

with, “there can be no ‘neurobiology of ESP and PK’ until first one can be sure

that there is ESP and PK” (p. 42). This appears to be in contradiction with even

the most extreme of viewpoints against psi, that psi is merely an internally

generated hallucination of the brain. Even in that case, there should be neural

correlates of such human experience worthy of study. The chapter ends with

“. . . what it would take for parapsychologists, if there is no psi, to accept that

conclusion” (p. 41). This assumes that all parapsychologists are biased in the

opposite direction of diehard skeptics. It is unclear that any body of evidence for

psi would ever meet Alcock’s criteria for existence. He is clearly indoctrinated

in scientism. As my friend Julia Mossbridge once said to a skeptical colleague,

“I’m sorry; I did not realize you were religious about science. I thought you

were an empiricist and valued evidence.”

 

Chapter 3 is a review by Watt and Irwin of the laboratory evidence for psi.

This is broken down into two types of research, proof-oriented and processoriented

studies of ESP. Next, definitions based on Rhine (1934) are given for

precognition, telepathy, and clairvoyance. Meta-analysis of a pool of studies is

presented as a useful tool to show how many null studies would be needed to

counteract studies with positive results and thus support the null hypothesis of no

psi. This is helpful to demonstrate that anomalous results significantly different

from chance are indeed consistent across studies. Of course, considering the

conflicting results between various meta-analysis publications, this is making

the assumption that all meta-analyses show a significant deviation from chance

or significantly large effect sizes. Such discrepancies suggest that the biases

of the people conducting a meta-analysis can affect the outcome and results.

Interestingly, despite the tendency of the use of meta-analysis to shoot down the

file drawer effect, Watt and Irwin state that “. . . proof-oriented ESP experiments have not succeeded in establishing the reality of ESP” (p. 48). As in the Alcock chapter, the reason given for this statement is lack of a specific mechanism of psi action. Surely in the early days of scientific discovery, correlations and subsequent theory building were essential to unraveling the mysteries of mechanisms of action. Particularly relevant to this topic is the fact that most modern-day neuroimaging is merely correlational by design, which does not necessarily reveal causation. Without true causation, where is the mechanism of action?

 

Next, there is an overview of independently replicable patterns seen in

psi performance such as the sheep–goat effect (psi-missing correlating with

negative attitudes toward psi, psi-hitting correlated with positive attitudes

toward psi), position effects (clustering of hits at the beginnings or ends of runs

and displacement forward or backward by trials, both of which are associated

with negative attitudes), and decline effects. This is followed by a review of

electrophysiological and neuroimaging studies, some with selected and some

with unselected subjects, suggesting that reduced physiological arousal is psiconducive.

 

Chapter 4 by Adrian Parker considers psychokinesis (PK) within a dualist

and other perspectives. One other perspective is panpsychism. This is defined

here as “. . . the unique property of neural matter to provide the means for

producing consciousness. . . ” (p. 67). Next, evidence of PK is presented. Much

of this is from subjective experiences of objects moving on their own, or macro-

PK. Some has come from laboratories such as PEAR (Princeton Engineering

Anomalies Research Laboratory) using random number generators (RNG) to

study “micro-PK.” The positive results seen at PEAR have not been replicated

with significant results or similar effect size according to Parker. Additionally,

other studies have shown psi-missing attributed to micro-PK within micro-

PK protocols. Such varying results might be caused by mixing gifted PK

subjects with the average person who does not have such ability. That would

explain why such a small effect is seen. Interestingly, based on a meta-analysis

by Radin and Ferrari (1991) of dice-throwing studies, there is a very small

but significant and consistent effect of PK with intention. This appears to be

universal and is not present in control studies. This suggests that this small but

 universal effect is not due to an error. Subsequently, Parker describes a PKconducive psychological state involving “. . . suspension of one’s critical ability and dissociation from one’s ordinary sense of identity” (p. 75). This is followed by cases of poltergeists involving disturbed adolescents with apparent temporal lobe abnormalities. The conclusion of the chapter includes an introduction of the filter theory, attributed to F. W. H. Myers, about how much information

processing takes place outside of conscious awareness.

 

Chapter 5, by Joan Hageman and colleagues, is titled “The Neurobiology

of Trance and Mediumship in Brazil.” The chapter commences with a detailed

list of “methodological pitfalls” in such studies. These include materialist

interpretations (assuming region-specific brain activity as the origin and cause

of such experiences), secondhand hearsay, causality/directionality within a

proposed mind–brain interaction, superficially clustering subjects by their

subjective experience, ignoring the holistic viewpoint, theories that do not

include a mechanism of action or are not all-encompassing of phenomena, and

finally using novices instead of expert subjects. This is followed by an overview

of electrophysiology/neuroimaging studies of various trance and religious

experiences including a table for comparison. Common findings include an

increase in brain activity in the frontal lobes during trance. Next, they present

two original studies conducted in Brazil with mediums. In the first study, two

mediums and a control were used. To avoid motion-induced artifacts in the

autonomic (hand temperature, EMG, heart rate, and skin conductance level) and

central (EEG) measures, “. . . mediums were instructed to imagine incorporating

a spirit (rather than to engage in direct incorporation)” (p. 97). This fact alone

means that the results obtained do not necessarily reflect what occurs in the

physiology of a medium when he/she actually does the regular process. Results

from the two mediums were paradoxical, combining sympathetic activation

in the ANS with relaxation in the CNS. Study two employed EEG (with no

mention of montage or number of channels) with nine mediums, all free of

known mental illness and use of indigenous ritualistic substances, doing their

usual practices of mediumship. EEG findings did not show a consistent pattern among the mediums, but ranged from absolutely normal electrical activity to some degree of EEG slowing. (p. 104) This was determined by comparing the baseline with the trance states. Most noteworthy, none of these mediums showed any evidence of epilepsy. This chapter mainly shows that more and better research is needed in this area to

elucidate neural correlates of trance and mediumistic experiences.

 

Chapter 6 by Norman Don is a presentation of his group’s research which

includes unconscious physiological measures associated with psi. In a number

of the studies presented, behavioral performance on psi tasks was at chance

level, but physiological responses to targets were different than responses to

non-targets, providing evidence of unconscious physiological differences

associated with precognition and clairvoyance, depending on the design.

Following this, Don presents his EEG research with a professed psychic, Olof

Jonsson. Jonsson claimed that he experienced three unique states (CD 1–3)

which he associated with psi, CD 2 and CD 3 being the prime states for this.

In the analysis, CD 3 was contrasted with CD 1. CD 3 with psi-hitting was

associated with right hemispheric dominance shown by EEG power and 40 Hz

occipital activity. Using Stepwise discriminant analysis, a model was developed

that allowed for correct classification of CD 1 and CD 3 and classification of

correct versus incorrect behavioral psi responses with the incredible claim

of ≥90% accuracy. Based on this 40 Hz gamma activity, Don and colleagues

decided to go back to reexamine the data in their ERP studies of unconscious

psi. As expected, they found that there was “. . . significantly more 40 Hz EEG

activity for target card imagery than for non-target imagery” (p. 118). This was

demonstrated in the right frontal and posterior regions. Don and colleagues

have also seen similar gamma activity in ayahuasca users during Brazilian

rituals, trance surgeons during a “possession trance,” and even those claiming

to have been abducted by extraterrestrials during self-initiated altered states

of consciousness involving hyper-vigilance. This was often with simultaneous

random event generators giving non-random output. Additionally, Don was

inspired to examine the hits and misses in behavioral data. He created a table

of this which resulted in what appeared to be a wave-like oscillating pattern.

This was visible even though the behavioral results were at chance, suggesting

the answers were random. However, despite there being no periodicity in the

data, spectral analysis revealed peaks that were significant. Don termed these

anomalies “correlation waves.” In further research, the peaks in these wave

patterns tended to correspond to hits. Don interpreted this to represent a leak

from the unconscious mind to consciousness based on placement of the trial

within the run. Furthermore, Don claimed this was found in both precognition

and clairvoyance experiments. Based on this, Don made a statement that this

“. . . suggests that psi is woven into the very fabric of nature” (p. 125). On further

speculation, Don ties this together with the gamma waves and correlation waves.

While the information provided in this chapter is intriguing, there are many

questions which remain unanswered to this reader. For instance, it is not clear

from this chapter if the differences seen between target and non-target averages

are statistically significant. Furthermore, the explanation of “correlation waves”

is unclear. Finally, connecting gamma brain waves and correlation waves with

psi and the fabric of the universe seems a bit premature. Presumably, many of

these issues would become clearer upon reading the original papers. However,

a chapter such as this should be complete within itself.

 

Chapter 7 by Vernon Neppe is an attempt to present the neurobiology

of “subjective paranormal experiences” (SPEs). Oddly enough, none of the

published research by Varela and colleagues about neurophenomenology

is included in the chapter. Out of body experiences (OBEs) and near-death

experiences (NDEs) are discussed in relation to the supposed induction of

similar experiences via brain stimulation, and in relation to traumatic insults

and pathologies such as narcolepsy and temporal lobe sensitivities. Some of

this appears to suggest that “REM intrusion” into normal consciousness may

be associated with SPEs. Next, Neppe transitions awkwardly into a review of

fMRI studies of ESP, commencing with an appropriately scathing review of

Moulton and Kosslyn (2008) and their Harvard press release. Ironically, as

Neppe reports, one pair of the subjects in this study appeared to show above

chance on ESP scores, and trials of correct ESP responses were associated with

unique brain activity changes (reductions in brain activity in temporal lobes and

other areas). Moulton and Kosslyn dismissed this as artifact. In contrast to his

previous assertions, Neppe proceeds to say that subtle differences associated

with psi may not be easily seen in fMRI due to the low signal-to-noise ratio.

There is substantial evidence against Neppe’s claim that subtle differences may

not be seen in fMRI. Many event-related fMRI experiments have discerned

parametric subtleties in responses and successfully deconvolved overlapping

hemodynamic response curves even to very brief stimuli (for instance, refer to

Dale and Buckner 1997). Next, Neppe proceeds with a brief survey of previous

and generally more successful fMRI studies of ESP-related anomalies. Then

there is a review of the temporal lobe’s potential involvement in SPEs via the

use of the “Neppe Temporal Lobe Questionnaire” (NTLQ) and the “Inventory

of Neppe of Symptoms of Epilepsy and the Temporal Lobe” (INSET) for

possible temporal lobe symptoms (PTLS). Following this, Neppe provides a

possible neuropsychological basis for SPEs involving frontal lobe inhibition or

inhibition of the “cortical filters.” Obviously, research needs to be conducted

to validate this theory. The chapter ends with Neppe’s own phenomenological

classification of SPEs. Throughout this chapter, Neppe references his own prior

work without clear explanations of meaning and definitions, using his own often

idiosyncratic language. Such a chapter should be complete within itself and not

require one to read all of Neppe’s work to make sense of it. Terms of this ilk

include “dimensional biophysicist” (apparently replacing parapsychologist),

parafamiliar, metafamiliar, queryfamiliar, and Neppe’s Anomalous Multiaxial

Event System (NAMES).

 

Chapter 8 by Morris Freedman is simply titled “Psi and the Brain.”

Freedman points out that despite the large body of literature on psi, there has

been a lack of focus on the potential neural correlates or specific brain loci

correlated with authentic psi. Here authentic psi is differentiated from Neppe’s

SPEs and limited to lab experiments with objective measures including REG

and neuroimaging. Freedman elaborates that there are many brain regions that

have been theorized to be involved with objective psi, e.g., reticular formation

of the brain stem and right hemispheric occipito–parietal regions, in contrast

with SPEs which appear to involve the temporal lobes. One theory given about

the reason for the elusiveness of psi is that we have developed, evolutionarily, a

filter to inhibit the overwhelming surge of psi-related input we receive at every

moment. Without such a filter, we would be overwhelmed and unable to focus

on information vital for our survival. If we could discover the nature of such a

filter, and find a way to inhibit it, this might uncover the neural correlates that

mediate authentic psi and improve access to strong psi phenomena. As in the

previous chapter, there is mention of reducing self-awareness and frontal lobe

activity, perhaps via altered states of consciousness that may be intertwined

with this filter. Freedman further explains that neuropsychological patients with

frontal lobe lesions or disorders with known deficits in frontal lobe functioning

could be key to examining this theory. He then presents a pilot study using

patients with pre-existing frontal lesions. A random event generator (REG)

was used with a visual stimuli representing the outputs. Only one patient, one

with a left frontal lesion, was able to significantly alter the REG output, and

thus the visual display, toward the right hemifield with directed intention. One

possible explanation given is that an intact right frontal lobe is required to

sustain attention to complete the task at hand. Thus, right frontal lesion and

bilateral lesion patients were unable to accomplish this. Freedman rightfully

suggests that further research is needed to verify the importance of left frontal

lobe inhibition in psi tasks. Note that transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

might be used to create reversible functional lesions in human subjects, e.g., to

test this theory.

 

Chapter 9, by David Luke and Harris Friedman, focuses on the

neurochemistry of psi and SPEs. Psychedelic psychotherapy using LSD has

yielded much evidence of psi-related SPEs. Furthermore, self-reports of

psychedelic users has also yielded a high percent of such experiences using

the Anomalous Experiences Inventory. It is not clear if this is showing a cause

and effect relationship between the use of psychedelics and such experiences. It

may be that people who choose to use psychedelics do so because they believe

in SPEs and are trying to induce them. Therefore, belief and corresponding

interpretation of experience may have more to do with SPEs in these people

than do the psychedelics themselves. Alternatively, these substances may

be inhibiting frontal lobe activity and self-awareness of the body, leading to

dissociation and inhibition of a possible psi filter. The authors review seventeen

studies involving the use of psychedelics in the lab with psi tasks using a

forced-choice paradigm. The majority of these were exploratory and lacking

methodological rigor such as a control condition, etc., and they did not yield

significant results. Only one such study (van Asperen de Boer, Barkema, &

Kappers 1966) demonstrated that psilocybin produced psi-hitting significantly

greater than chance using a Zener-card–like task. Free-response experiments

have yielded much better results than forced-choice protocols. As expected,

Luke and Friedman report that subjects in these studies were “high” and thus

it was difficult to get them to focus on a laboratory experiment. Osis (1961)

and Wezelman and Bierman (1997) are examples of studies also showing

significant results. Again, as in previous chapters, a model of the brain as a

filter to psi is suggested. Psychedelics, as Huxley (1954) put it, may “. .

override the ‘reducing valve’ of the brain” (p. 167) and thus permit psi to

emerge into conscious awareness. Subsequently, Luke and Friedman present

several neurochemical models of psi and SPEs based on psychedelics and their

central mechanisms of action. This includes a disruption (via antagonism of

5-HT2A receptors) of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit, the β-carboline

and tryptamine model via MAO inhibition as via DMT (dimethyltryptamine)

and ayahuasca, or endogenously via pineal secretions, the DMT model again

with endogenous involvement of the pineal, and a ketamine model of NMDAreceptor

binding, blocking glutamate and eliciting dissociative experiences. As

the authors readily admit, this chapter is highly speculative. The conclusion

of the chapter is that there are four possible models of psi and SPEs: (1) the

brain acting as a filter, (2) the β-carboline and tryptamine model, and the

(3) DMT and (4) ketamine models. However, one possibility, as mentioned

by the authors, is that all of these models interact, intersect, or even overlap.

Psychedelics and ketamine may work via different mechanisms to inhibit the

frontal lobe function where such a psi-filter may exist.

 

The book ends with a Postscript by Stanley Krippner and Harris Friedman,

emphasizing a “costly signaling theory” (CST). In accordance with CST, such

a signal between people (perhaps telepathy) would need to be “. . . reliable,

authentic, and fairly impervious to fakery” (p. 191). However, this is not

how psi appears to work. Furthermore, the explanation of this theory in the

context of psi is not very clear here. Following this is an overview of the book’s

various chapters, and excessive references to Gazzaniga. Mirror neurons are

presented as binding people. Could this be a neural interface of telepathy via

some non-local or quantum entanglement-like mechanism? At this point, that

is mere conjecture. The Postscript ends with a non-materialist explanation of

consciousness in which a mind may exist outside of the brain.

 

In sum, this book provides a wealth of information and varying opinions

of relevant studies of SPEs and psi; some contesting the existence of psi,

whereas others provide evidence in favor of it. The studies presented are a

bit selective and uneven in quality. This is all within the context of possible

neural correlates of psi and related SPEs. Suggested neural correlates for psi

and related SPEs include slow cortical potentials, gamma waves (40 Hz),

and temporal lobe abnormalities as shown in EEG; fMRI correlates; reduced

physiological arousal, as measured by psychophysiology and neuroimaging,

shown to be conducive to psi; the model of the cortex (possibly the frontal

lobes) acting as a filter for unconscious psi; and psychedelic models of psi

including serotonergic and glutamatergic systems possibly inhibiting the

frontal lobes and thus the filter of psi. Several chapters mention the need for

theories of mechanism of action of psi and related experiences while ignoring

the evidence for psi. Other chapters supply metaphors of quantum mechanics

without a direct mapping onto phenomena. In order to progress in this field,

testable hypotheses of mechanisms of action are needed. Some theories may

help divulge a mechanism of action of psi, whereas others may not. If theories

are not supported by evidence, this does not discount the possibility of psi.

However, it remains clear that until a mechanism/or mechanisms of action for

psi can be supported by objective evidence, leading to predictions of outcome

and replicability, this debate will be ongoing.

 

 

EDWARD JUSTIN MODESTINO

Ray Westphal Neuroimaging Laboratory

Division of Perceptual Studies

Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences

University of Virginia Health System

ejm9f@virginia.edu

 

References

 

Dale, A. M., & Buckner, R. L. (1997). Selective averaging of rapidly presented individual trials using fMRI. Human Brain Mapping, 5 (5), 329–340.

Huxley, A. (1954). The Doors of Perception. London: Chatto & Windus.

Moulton, S. T., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Using neuroimaging to resolve the psi debate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 182–192.

Osis, K. (1961). Deathbed Observations by Physicians and Nurses. New York: Parapsychology Foundation.

Radin, D. I., & Ferrari, D. C. (1991). Effects of consciousness on the fall of dice: A meta-analysis. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 5(3), 61–84.

Rhine, J. B. (1934). Extra-Sensory Perception. Boston: Boston Society for Psychic Research.

van Asperen de Boer, S. R., Barkema, P. R.,& Kappers, J. (1966). Is it possible to induce ESP with psilocybin? An exploratory investigation. International Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 2 (5), 447–473.

Wezelman, R., & Bierman, D. J. (1997). Process oriented ganzfeld research in Amsterdam. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Parapsychology Association Convention held in conjunction with the Society for Psychical Research; 7–10 August 1997; Brighton, United Kingdom. Durham, NC: Parapsychological Association.

pp. 477–492.

  • Tweet
  • Share 0

Arkiverad under: Notiser

« Notis 285 – Baron von Reichenbach
Notis 287 – Nytt nr av EdgeScience »

Bli medlem

Stöd parapsykologins utveckling i Sverige: 300 kr/år (200 kr för arbetslösa, pensionärer och studerande).

PlusGiro: 35 17 57-0
Swish: 1236011290

Podden!

Taggar

Telepati (19) Rupert Sheldrake (18) Skeptiker (17) Kvantfysik (15) Daryl Bem (13) Konferens (11) Adrian Parker (10) Lundaprofessuren (10) Tvillingtelepati (9) Medvetandet (8) EVP (7) Richard Wiseman (7) Poltergeist (6) Edgescience (6) Remote viewing (6) Psi-spåret (6) Journal of the Society for Psychical Research (6) James Randi (6) Journal of Consciousness Studies (6) Utomkroppsliga upplevelser (6) Fysiskt mediumskap (6) Prekognition (6) Reinkarnation (5) Magnetfält (5) Jan Pilotti (5) Medium (5) Göte Andersson (5) Göran Brusewitz (5)
  • Facebook
  • Vimeo
  • YouTube

Prenumerera på våra e-postutskick

Facebook Pagelike Widget

© Copyright 2014 Parapsykologi.se · All Rights Reserved · Admin